英语国家概况精讲系列

艾昕儿

Chapter 1

第一章

Land and People

英国的国土与人民

I. Different Names for Britain and its Parts

英国的不同名称及其各组成部分

1.Geographical names： the British Isles， Great Britain and England.

地理名称：不列颠群岛，大不列颠和英格兰。

2.Official name： the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.

官方正式名称：大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国。

3.The British Isles are made up of two large islands-Great Britain （the larger one） and Ireland， and hundreds of small ones.

不列颠群岛由两个大岛—大不列颠岛（较大的一个）和爱尔兰岛，及成千上万个小岛组成。

4.Three political divisions on the island of Great Britain： England， Scotland and Wales.

大不列颠岛上有三个政治区：英格兰、苏格兰和威尔士。

（1） England is in the southern part of Great Britain. It is the largest， most populous section.

英格兰位于大不列颠岛南部，是最大，人口最稠密的地区。

（2） Scotland is in the north of Great Britain. It has three natural zones （the Highlands in the north； the Central lowlands； the south Uplands） Capital： Edinburgh

苏格兰位于大不列颠的北部。它有三大自然区：北部高地，中部低地及南部山陵。首府：爱丁堡。

（3） Wales is in the west of Great Britain. Capital： Cardiff

威尔士位于大不列颠的西部。首府：加的夫

（4） Northern Ireland is the fourth region of the UK. Capital： Belfast.

北爱尔兰是英国第四个区域。首府：贝尔法斯特。

5.The Commonwealth （of nations） is a free association of independent countries that were once colonies of Britain. It was founded in 1931， and has 50 member countries until 1991.

英联邦是曾为英国殖民地的、但现已独立国家所构成的自由联合体。它成立于1931年，至1990年止已有50个成员国。

II. Geographical Features 英国的地理特征

1.Geographical position of Britain：

英国的地理位置：

Britain is an island country surrounded by the sea. It lies in the North Atlantic Ocean off the north coast of Europe. It is separated from the rest of Europe by the English Channel in the south and the North Sea in the east.

英国是一个岛国。它位于大西洋北部，与欧洲大陆的北海岸隔海相望。南面的英吉利海峡和东面的北海将它与欧洲其它部分隔开。

2.The north and west of Britain are mainly highlands； and the east and southeast are mostly lowlands.

英国的西部和北部主要是高地，东部和东南部主要是低地。

III. Rivers and Lakes 河流与湖泊

Ben Nevis is the highest mountain in Britain （1，343m）。

本尼维斯山为英国最高峰，海拔1，343米。

Severn River is the longest river in Britain （338km）。

塞文河是英国最长的河流。全长338公里。

Thames River is the second longest and most important river in Britain. （336km）。

泰晤士河是英国第二大河，也是英国最重要的河。全长336公里。

Lough Neagh is the largest lake in Britain which is located in Northern Ireland. （396 square kilometres）。

讷湖（内伊湖）是英国最大的湖，位于北爱尔兰。面积为396平方公里。

River Clyde is the most important river in Scotland.

克莱德河是苏格兰最重要的河流。

Snowdonia is the highest mountain in Wales.（1，085m）

斯诺多尼亚是威尔士的最高点，海拔1，085米。

IV. Climate 气候

1. Britain's favorable climate 英国有利的气候条件：

Britain has a maritime climate-winters are not too cold and summers are not too hot. It has a steady reliable rainfall throughout the whole year. The temperature varies within a small range.

英国属于海洋性气候：冬季不过于寒冷，夏季不过于炎热。全年有稳定可靠的降雨量，气温变化幅度小。

2.The factors influence the climate in Britain：

影响英国气候的因素：

1）The surrounding waters tend to balance the seasonal differences by heating up the land in winter and cooling it off in summer；

环绕四周的海水。冬天，海水可使岛内气温升高，夏天则使气温降低，从而起到平衡季节温差的作用；

2）The prevailing south-west winds or the Westerlies blow over the country all the year round bringing warm and wet air in winter and keeping the temperatures moderate；

一年四季盛行的西南风和西风在冬季从大西洋带来温暖、潮湿的空气，使气温适宜；

3）The North Atlantic Drift passes the western coast of the British Isles and warms them.

北大西洋暖流经不列颠群岛西海岸，使气候变暖。

3.Rainfall 降雨量：

Britain has a steady reliable rainfall throughout the whole year. The average annual rainfall in Britain is over 1，000mm.

There is a water surplus in the north and west， and a water deficit in the south and east.

英国全年降雨量稳定，平均降雨量超过1000毫米。 英国北部、西部雨量过多，但是南部、东部有所缺乏。

V. The People 人口

1.population distribution 人口分布：

Britain has a population of about 57 millions and it is very unevenly distributed. 90% of the population is urban and only 10% is rural. The population of Britain is made up mainly of the English （81.5%）， the Scottish （9.6%）， the Welsh （1.9%）， the Irish （2.4%）， the Northern Irish （1.8%） and other peoples （2.8%）。

英国人口约570万，分布极不均匀，90%是城市人口，只有10%是农村人口。英国人口组成为：英格兰人（81.5%），苏格兰人（9.6%），威尔士人（1.9%），爱尔兰人、北爱尔兰人和其他民族居民。

2.The difference between the ancestors of the English and Scots， Welsh and Irish：

英伦三岛民族的祖先：

The ancestors of the English are Anglo-Saxons， the Scots， Welsh and Irish are Celts.

英格兰人祖先属于盎格鲁—萨克逊人，而苏格兰、威尔士和爱尔兰人属于凯尔特人。

3.The difference in character个性差别：

The Welsh are emotional and cheerful people. They are music lovers and are proud of their past.

威尔士人感情丰富，情绪高涨，热爱音乐，为过去感到自豪。

The Scots are said to be a serious， cautious and thrifty people， and they are also hospitable， generous and friendly.

苏格兰人通常被认为严肃、谨慎而且节俭，但是他们同样也热情、大方且友好。

The Irish are charm and vivacity. 爱尔兰人充满魅力，生性活泼。

4.The difference in speech between southern England and northern England：

英格兰南方人和北方人语言上的差别：

Southerners speak the type of English close to BBC English； In northern England， regional speech is usually "broader" than that of southern England.

南方人讲的英语接近BBC，北英格兰人的发音通常要比南英格兰人宽。

5.The Welsh keep their language and culture in this way： 威尔士人以这样的方式使他们的语言及文化保持活力。

Throughout the year they have festivals of song and dance and poetry called Eisteddfodau. The great event of the year is the National Eisteddfod. On these occasions competitions are held in Welsh poetry， music， singing and art.

一年中他们有称之为“艺术年会”的唱歌、跳舞、诗歌节。一年中最重要的节日是全国诗歌音乐比赛会。在那里会举行威尔士诗歌、音乐、唱歌和艺术比赛。

6.The main problem in Northern Ireland： 北爱尔兰存在的主要问题：

The fight between the Protestants who are the dominant group， and the Roman Catholics， who are seeking more social， political and economic opportunities.

作为统治者的新教徒和要求更多社会、政治及经济权利的罗马天主教徒之间的斗争。

7.Immigrants： 移民：

About three million have come to Britain to live and find work since World War II.

自从二战以来约有三百万人来英国生活、工作。

艾昕儿

美国部分开始

chapter 13 geography 地理位置

1.Alaska and Hawaii are the two newest states in American.Alaska northwestern Canada，and Hawaii lies in the central Pacific.

阿拉斯加和夏威夷是最近加入美国的两个新州。阿拉斯加在加拿大的西北部，夏威夷位邻中太平洋。（本细节还有考“一句话简答”的可能）

2.The U.S has a land area of 9.3 million square kilometres.It is the fourth largest country in the world in size after Russia，Canada and China.

就面积而言，美国是世界第四大国，就人口而言，美国是世界是第三大国。

3.Of all states of American，Alaska is the lagest in area and Rhode Island the smallest.But on the mainland Texas is the largest sate of the country.

所有州中，阿拉斯加是面积最大的州，罗得岛最小，在美国大陆，最大的州是得克萨斯州。

4.The Rockies，the backbone of the North American Continent，is also known as the Continental Divide.

落基山脉是北美大陆的脊梁，也被成为大陆分水岭。

5.The two main mountain ranges in American are the Appalachian mountains and the Rocky mountains. The Appalachians run slightly from the northeast to southwest and the Rocky mountains run slightly from the northwest to southeast.

阿巴拉契亚山脉和落基山脉是美国的两座大山脉。（本细节有考“一句话简答题”的可能）

6.The Mississippi River is the largest river in American，over 6000 kilometers.The Mississippi has been called "father of waters"or "old man river"

密西西比河是美国最长河流，有被称作“众水之父”或“老人河”。

7.The Ohio river has been called the American Ruhr，As in Germany， the area along the river is rich in valuable deposits of high-grade coking coal and is well known for its steel industry.The river provides cheap water transportation for raw materials.

俄亥俄河被称作美国的鲁尔河，就像德国一样，沿河有丰富的高品千周的焦煤，并且因其钢铁而著名。另外，该河还为原材料提供了廉价的水路运输。

8.On the Pacific side there are two great rivers：the Colorado in the south and the Columbia ，which rises in Canada.

太平洋沿岸有两大河：科罗拉多河及哥伦比亚河。

9.The Rio Grande River forms a natural boundary between Mexico and the United States.

格兰德河是美国和墨西哥之间的开然界河（本细节考选择和简答可能性大）

10.the most important lakes in the United States are the Great Lakes. They are Lake Superior，which is the largest fresh water lake in the world， Lake Michigan ，the only entirely in the U.S.，Lake Huron，Lake Eire and Lake Ontario.They are located between Canada and the United States except Lake Michigan.

美国最重要的湖泊是五大湖：苏必利尔湖，密歇根湖，休伦湖，伊利湖和安大略湖，其中，苏必利尔湖为世界最大淡水湖，密歇根湖完全是美国境地内。

11.美国气候概述

1） A humid continental climate（湿润的大陆性气候） is found in the north-eastern part of the country.

2） In the south-eastern United States you can find a humid subtropical climate.（湿润的亚热带气候——东南部）

3）The Pacific northwest is favored with a maritime climate海洋性气候——太平洋西北岸）

4）The southern part of the Pacific coast in California（加州太平洋沿岸南部） has a Mediterranean climate （地中海式气候）with warm，dry summers and moist winters.

12.Many factors besides latitude influence the climate in the United States.Perhaps the most important forces are the Atlantic and Pacific oceans，the Gulf of Mexick ，and the Great Lakes.

影响美国气候的最主要的因素为：太平洋，和大西泮，墨西哥湾，五大湖。

13.Traditionally from the east to the west the United States can be divided into seven geographical regions.美国从东到西可分为七个地理区。

14.New English is made up of six states of the Northeast .Becaust of its stony soil it is not noted for its agriculture .Dairying is the most inportant farm activity，New English is also well-known for its position in education，Many famous universities and colleges such as Yale，Harvard，thd Massachusetts Institute of Technology（MIT） are located here.

新英格兰由美国东北部六个州组成，由于土壤多石，不利于农业生产，乳制品业是最重要的农业活动，许多重点大学如耶鲁大学，哈佛大学和麻省理工学院都坐落于此。

15.New Englanders were originally knows as Yankees，which came to stand for alll American.新英格兰人最初曾被称作“美国佬：这一名称，后来渐渐指所有的美国人。（选择）

16.The Middle Atlantic States have about one fifth of the total population of the united states.大西洋中部各州的人口占美国总人口的1/5.

17.The soil is rich，the rain usually pientiful and the growing season long，These factors make the Midwest America's most important agricultural area .It is also a major manufacturing region and the nation's leading center of heavy industry.

中西部地区是美国最重要的农业区，也是主要的制造业区各最主要的重工业区。

18.Chicago，the largest and busiest port on the Great Lakes， is the largest industral and commercial center of the area.芝加哥是五大湖最大最忙的港口，也是该地区最大的工商业中心。

19.Detroit is known as the automobile capital of the world.Omaha is known as the agricultural capital of the United states.底特律被称作“汽车之都，奥马哈被称作农业之都。

20.Dry farming ，irrigation farming，and the cattle and sheep herding are the main cativities of the Great Plains of the American West.

旱地农业，灌溉农业和牛羊牧业是美国西部大平原地区的主要活动。

21.Colorado has been called the steel city of the west ，Denver is the largest city of the Great Plains.科罗拉多市被称作“西部钢城”，丹佛市是大平原地区最大的城市。

22.the largest groups of Native Americans are found on the Colorado Plateau.

美国最大的土著群落位于科罗拉多高原。

23.Mmauna Loa，the world's largest volcano，is located on Haiwaii and erupts from time to time，Suger cane and pineapples anr Haiwaii's main crops.Tourism is Haiwaii's most important industry.莫纳洛阿火山是世界最大和活火山，甘蔗和菠罗是夏威夷的两大作物，旅游业是夏威夷最重要的产业。

24.Honolulu is the capital of Haiwaii and Juneau is the capital of Alaska.

火奴鲁鲁是夏威夷的首府，朱诺是阿拉斯加的首府。

艾昕儿

Chapter 9

第九章

Social Affairs

英国社会

I. Health and Social Services

全国医疗保健计划

1. Britain is regarded as a welfare state. This system is funded out of national insurance contributions and taxation. In Britain the term applies mainly to the National Health Service （NHS）， national insurance and social security.

英国被认为是福利制度的国家。此制度的所需资金来源于全国保险税和赋税。在英国，这主要是指国民保健制度，国民保险和社会保障制度。

2. The National Health Service provides for every resident， regardless of income， a full range of medical services. The service was established in the U.K. in 1948. Over 82 per cent of the cost of the health service in Great Britain id funded out of general taxation. The rest is met from： （1） the NHS element of National Insurance contributions； （2） charges towards the cost of certain items such as drugs prescribed by family doctors， and general dental treatment； （3） other receipts， including land sales and the proceeds of income generation schemes.

不管个人收入如何，国民保健制度为每个居民提供全面医疗服务。英国于1948年确立此制度。英国国民保健制度82%以下的费用来自普通税收，其他部分来自（1）国民保险金中的国民保险金部分；（2）象对家庭一生开的药单和普通牙科治疗所收的费用；（3）其他收入，包括出售土地和增收计划的收益。

3. There are proportional charges for most types of HNS dental treatment， including examinations. Sight test are free to children. No one is liable to be charged by the National Health Service for treatment in an accident， emergency or for an infectious disease. Central government is directly responsible for the NHS， which is administered by a range of local health authorities and health boards throughout the U……

国民保健制度中多数牙科治疗都要收取一定比例的费用，包括检查费。视力检查对儿童免费。国民保健制度对事故，急诊或传染病的治疗不收费，中央政府直接负责国民保健制度，由全国各地的保健机构和卫生委员会实施。

4. The family health services are those given to patients by doctors， dentists， opticians and pharmacists. In order to obtain the benefits of the NHS a person must normally be registered on the list of a general practitioner （GP， sometimes knows as a “family doctor”）。

家庭保健服务由医生、牙医、眼科大夫和药剂师提供给病人。为获得国民保健制度的服务，人们必须在普通开业医生的名册上注册。

5. A full range of hospital services is provided by district general hospital. There are also specialist hospital or units for children， people suffering from mental illness， those with learning disabilities， and elderly people， and for the treatment of specific diseases.

地区普通医院提供全面的医院服务。也有为儿童，精神病人，有学习障碍者，老人和特殊病人开设的专门医院或病区。

6. The National Health Service is the largest single employer of labour in the U.K. NHS has suffered from underfunding in recent decades， as a result of which many better-off people have been turning to private medical health care.

国民保健制度是英国最大的用人机构。近几十年来，因为资金不足，许多比较富裕的人正逐渐转向私人的医疗保健机构。

7. Personal social services in Britain assist elderly people， disabled people， people with learning disabilities or mental illness， children， and families facing special problems. These statutory service are provided by local government social services authorities.

在英国，个人社会服务向老人，残疾人，有学习障碍者，精神病人，有特殊家庭困难的人等。地方政府社会服务委员会提供法定援助。

II. social Security

社会保险

1. The social security system is designed to secure a basic standard of living for people in financial need. Nearly a third of government expenditure is devoted to the social security programme which provides financial help for people who are elderly， sick， disabled， unemployed， widowed， bringing up children or on very low incomes.

社会保险制度设立的目的是保障经济困难的人们的基本生活水平，政府开支的近三分之一用于社会保险计划。此计划给老人，病人，残疾人，失业者，寡妇，抚育幼儿者或低收入者提供经济帮助。

2. Administration in Great Britain is handled by separate executive agencies of the Department of Social Security. In Northern Ireland by the Social Security Agency.

大不列颠的社会保险由社会保险部独立执行机构管理，在北爱尔兰则是社会保险局。

3. contributory social security benefits， it include：（ 1） retirement pension； （2） unemployment pension； （3） sickness and invalidity benefit and （4） Maternity allowance and widows‘s benefits.

需要先交费的社会安全福利（个人有工作收入时交，无收入时领），其中包括：退休金，失业金，病残福利金，孕产期补助金，寡妇补助金。

4. non-contributory social security benefits， it include： （1） war pensions；（2） industrial injuries disablement benefit；（3） child benefit and （4） family credit.

不需要先交费的福利金，包括战争伤亡抚恤金，工伤致残救济金，儿童补助金，低收入家庭补助金。

III. Religion宗教

1. Everyone in Britain has the right to religious freedom with out interference from the community or the State. He may change his religion at will may manifest his faith in teaching， worship and observance. Except that the Lord Chancellor may be a Roman Catholic， public offices are open without distinction to members of all churches or none.

在英国，人人都有信仰宗教的权利，社会和政府不得干涉。他可以随意改变宗教信仰，可以在教职，礼拜或仪式中表明他的信仰。除了娃哈哈官不可以是罗马天主教徒外，公共职务对各种信仰或没有信仰的人一律公开。

2. Established churches

国教

There are two established church in Britain： in England the church of England and Scotland the Church of England.

英国有两大国教，在英格兰是英格兰国教，苏格兰是苏格兰教会（长老教）。

3. Church of England is uniquely related to the Crown in that the Sovereign must be a member of that Church and as “Defender of the Faith”。 The Church is also linked with the State through the House of loads. The church of England is not free to change its form of worship， as laid down in the Book of Common Prayer without the consent of Parliament.

英格兰国教与君主有独特的联系。因为君主作为“国教的捍卫者”必须是此教会的一员，他在登基时必须承诺维持国教。国教还通过上议院与政府联系。没有议会同意，英格兰教会不可随意改变“国教祈祷书”中规定的礼拜仪式。

4. The government of the Church of Scotland is Presbyterian， that is， government by ministers and elders， all of whom are ordained to office. The Monarch is normally represented at the general assembly by the Lord High Commissioner.

英格兰教的管理时长老制，也就是由教士和长老治理。他们被授予圣职，王室高级代表通常代表君主光临会议。

5. Unestablished churches

非国教教会

There are include： the Anglican Churches（圣公会），the Free Churches（自由教），the Roman Catholic Church（罗马天主教）。

IV. Festival and Public Holidays

节假日

The Christian festival of the year and Christmas， Easter， and Whit Sunday.

其主要的节日有圣诞节，复活节，圣灵降临节

Chapter 10

第十章

Sports

体育运动

1. Many international sports were introduced by the British who take their leisure time very seriously. There is widespread participation in sport in Britain.

许多国际体育项目是由认真对待休闲时间的英国人引进的，在英国，人们广泛参与体育。

2. Football （ or “soccer” as it is colloquially called ）， the most popular sport in England as well as in Europe， has its traditional home in England where it was developed in the 19th century.

足球（口语叫“soccer”），在英格兰和欧洲是最受欢迎的运动，其传统老家在英格兰，出现于19世纪。

3. The game “Rugby” was invented at Rugby School in Warwich shire in the early 19th century.

拉格比球比赛19世纪初创立于沃尔威克郡的拉格比学校，因此而得名。

4. Cricket， the most typically English of sports， has been in existence since the 16th century. On an international level， 5-day Cornhill Test Matches.

板球，是英国人最典型的体育运动，自从16世纪以来已存在。国际比赛是5天的康希尔决赛。

5. Although tennis has been played for centuries， the modern game originated in England in late 19th. The main tournament is the annual Wimbledon fortnight， one of the 4 tennis “Grand Slam” tournaments.

尽管网球已打了好几个世纪，但现代比赛却起源于19世纪末的英格兰。主要比赛是一年一度的温布尔登两周赛，这是四大满贯网球锦标赛之一。

6. There is a considerable following and participation of athletics in Britain. For example， the London Marathon， which takes place every spring.

英国参加田径的人很多，例如伦敦的马拉松塞，每年春季举行。

7. The home of golf is Scotland where the game has been played since the 17th century and naturally the oldest golf club in the world is there： The Honourable Company of Edinburgh Golfers. The Walker Cup for amateurs and the Ryder Cup for professionals.

高尔夫球的故里是苏格兰，自从17世纪以来这项运动就在那儿盛行。全世界最古老的高尔夫俱乐部也在那里：爱丁堡高尔夫球会员荣誉公司。业余球员参加沃尔克公开赛，职业球员参加雷德尔杯。

英国部分结束

艾昕儿

Chapter 8

第八章

Justice and the law

法律与司法机构

There is no single legal system in the United Kingdom. A feature common to all systems of law in the United Kingdom is that there is no complete code. The sources of law include （1） statutes； （2） a large amount of “unwritten” or common law； （3） equity law； （4） European Community. Another common feature is the distinction made between criminal law and civil law.

联合王国不实行完全统一的法律制度。联合王国所有法律制度的一个共同特点是没有以部完整的法典。法典来源包括：（1）成文法；（2）大量的“不成文法”或习惯法；（3）衡平法；（4）欧共体法。另一个共同的特点是刑法和民法之间的区别。

I.Criminal Proceedings

刑事诉讼程序

1. In England and Wales， once the police have charged a person with a criminal offence， the crown Prosecution Service assumes control of the case reviews the evidence to decide whether to prosecute.

在英格兰和威尔士，一旦警察指控某人犯有刑事罪，皇家检察总署就要接管此案，并独立地审核证据以决定是否起诉。

2. In Britain all criminal trial are held in open count because the criminal law presumes the innocence of the accused until he has been proved guilty beyond reasonable doubt. The prosecution and the defense get equal treatment. No accused person has to answer the question of the police before trial. He is not compelled to give evidence in count. Every accused person has the right to employ a legal adviser to conduct his defense. If he can not afford to pay， he may be granted aid at public expense. In criminal trial by jury， the judge passes sentence， but the jury decided the issue of guilt or innocence. The jury composed of 12 or ordinary people. If the verdict of the jury can not be unanimous， it must be a majority.

在英国，所有的刑事审判都在法院公开进行。因为刑法认为，在消除合理怀疑证明被告有罪之前，他是无辜的。原告与被告同样平等，审判时被告不必回答警察的问题，不许强迫被告提供证据。每位被告都有权雇佣律师为其辩护。如果他不能支付律师费，可以用公用费用提供帮助。在由陪审团进行的刑事审判中，法官判刑，但陪审团决定是否有罪。陪审团一般由12人组成。如果陪审团不能做出一致判决，也必须是多数决定。

3.A verdict of “ not guilt” means acquittal for the accused， who can never again be charged with that specific crime.

“无罪”裁决意味着被告无罪，并且永远不得再以此罪名对其指控。

II. Criminal Courts

刑事法庭

1. Criminal Courts in England and Wales

英格兰和威尔士的刑事法庭

Magistrates‘ Courts which try summary offences and “either way” offences. A magistrates’ court， which is open to the public and the media， usually consists of three unpaid “lay” magistrates-known as justices of the peace-who are advised on point of law and procedure by a legally qualified assistant. A Magistrates‘ court sits without a jury.

治安（警事）法庭，负责审理判决犯罪，也审理“任意方式”罪行。治安法庭对公众和媒体公开，通常由三位无薪的“外行”地方官——地方治安官组成，由懂得法律知识的书记员和助手给他们提供法律规定和程序方面的建议。治安法庭审察时没有陪审团。

Youth Court which try most cases involving people under 18.

青少年法庭，负责审理18岁以下青年的大多数案件。

The Crown Court tries the most serious offences and ‘either way“ offences referred to it by magistrates. The Crown Court is presided over by High Court judges， full-time circuit Judges and part-time Recorders England and Wales are divided into six circuits for the purpose of hearing criminal case. Each circuit is divided into areas containing one or more centers of High Court and Crown Court.

皇家刑事法庭。负责审理最严重的罪行和由地方法官提交的“任意方式”罪行。皇家刑事法庭由高级法院法官，全职巡回法官和兼任刑事法官主持。为审理刑事案，英格兰和威尔士被分为六个巡回区，每个巡回区又分区域，每个区域有一个或多个高级法庭和皇家刑事法庭。

2. Criminal courts in Scotland

苏格兰的刑事法庭

There are three criminal courts in Scotland.（1）the High Court of Justiciary；（2） the sheriff court；（3） the district court. Scotland has two types of criminal procedure， know as solemn procedure and summary procedure. In solemn procedure， a defendant is tried by a judge sits without a jury.

英格兰有三种刑事法院：（1）高级法院；（2）郡法院；（3）区法院。英格兰有两种刑事诉讼：庄重诉讼和即决诉讼。庄重诉讼里，被告由陪审团和法官审理。在即决诉讼中，法官独自审理，不用陪审团。

3. Criminal courts in Northern Ireland

北爱尔兰的刑事法庭

Cases involving minor summary offences are heard by magistrates‘ courts presided over by a full-time legally qualified resident magistrate. County courts are primarily civil law courts. The Crown Court deals with criminal trails on indictment.

涉及轻微即决犯罪的案件由治安法庭听审，法庭由全职的法律合格的常驻治安法官主持。郡法庭主要是民事法庭。皇家刑事法庭根据起诉进行刑事审判。

III.Civil Courts

民事法庭

1. Civil Courts in England and Wales

英格兰和威尔士的民事法庭

Magistrates‘ Courts have limited civil jurisdiction， The main courts of civil jurisdiction are County Courts， the High Court deals with the more complicated civil case. Its jurisdiction covers mainly civil and some criminal cases. It has three divisions： （1） the family Division； （2） the Chancery Division； （3） the Queen’s Bench Division.

治安法庭只有一定的民事审判权。主要行使民事司法权的是民事法院，高等法院处理更为复杂的民事案。主要包括民事案和一些刑事案，高等法院有三个分支：（1）家事庭；（2）娃哈哈官庭；（3）王室庭。

2. Civil Courts in Scotland

苏格兰的民事法庭

The Civil Courts are the sheriff court and the Court of session.

民事法院包括郡法院和巡回法院（最高中心法院）。

3. Civil Courts in Northern Ireland

北爱尔兰的民事法院

County Court are primarily civil law courts. The magistrates‘ court also deal with certain limited classes of civil cases. The high Court of Justice the superior civil law court.

郡法院主要是民事法院。治安法庭也审理某些有限类型的民事案件。高等法院就是高级民事法院。

IV. The Judiciary

司法机构

There is no ministry of justice in the United Kingdom. Central responsibility lies with the Lord Chancellor the Home Secretary and the Attorney General. In England and Wales， lay magistrates are appointed on behalf of the Crown by the Lord Chancellor who is advised by committees in each county. The Lord Chancellor recommends the High Court and circuit judges. The highest judicial appointments and made by the Queen on the advice of the Prime Minister.

英国没有司法机构。中央政府的司法工作主要由娃哈哈官内政大臣和检察总长负责。在英格兰和威尔士，娃哈哈官根据各部委员会的建议任命外行人员为治安官。娃哈哈官推荐高等法官和巡回法官。最高级别的司法官任命由女王根据首相的建议做出。

V. Police

警察

The police service for United Kingdom is organized and controlled on a local basis under the Home Secretary and the Scottish and Northern Ireland Secretaries. London‘s Metropolitan Police Force is directly under the control of Home Secretary. Police officers are not allowed to join a trade union or go on strike. They do not normally carry firearms.

在内政大臣和苏格兰及北爱尔兰国务大臣的指导下，英国警察分地组建，并以地方管理为基础。但伦敦警察署直接与内政大臣管辖。警察不得加入工会或罢工。他们通常不佩带手枪。

VI. Treatment of offenders

对违法者的处理

The chief aims of the penal system are to deter the potential lawbreaker and to reform the convicted offender.

刑罚制度的主要目的是阻止潜在的违法者，并改造已判的违法者。

Capital punishment （ a sentence of death ） for murder has been abolished in the U.K， through proposal for its reinstatement are regularly debated by Parliament， and it remains the penalty for treason and piracy.

英国已废除对谋杀罪的死刑，但议会仍经常辩论要恢复死刑，判国罪和海盗罪仍可判死刑。

艾昕儿

Chapter 7

第七章

Government and Administration

英国政府机构

The United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy， the head of state is a king or a queen. The United Kingdom is governed， in the name of the Sovereign by His or Her Majesty‘s Government. The System of parliamentary government is not based on a written constitution， the British constitution is not set out in any single document. It is made up of statute law， common law and conventions. The Judiciary determines common law and interprets statutes.

联合王国是君主立宪制国家，国家的首脑是国王或女王。联合王国以君的名义，由国王或女王陛下政府治理。英国的议会制度并不是基于成文宪法，英国宪法不由单一文件构成，而由成文法，习惯法和惯例组成。司法部门裁定习惯法或解释成文法。

I.The Monarchy

君主制

1.Elizabeth II， her title in the United Kingdom is “Elizabeth the Second， by the Grace of God of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and Her Other Realms and Territories， Queen， Head of the Commonwealth， Defender of the Faith.

伊莉莎白二世，她的全称是“上帝神佑，大布列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国以及她的其他领土和领地的女王，英联邦元首，国教保护者伊莉莎白二世。”

2.The Queen is the symbol of the whole nation. In law， She is head of the executive， an integral part of the legislature， head of the judiciary， the commander-in-chief of all the armed forces and the “supreme governor” of the Church of England. She gives Royal Assent to Bills passed by parliament.

女王是国家的象征。从法律上讲，她是行政首脑，立法机构的组成部分，司法首脑，全国武装部队总司令，英国国教“至高无上”的领袖。她任命首相和重要的政府官员。对议会通过的法案给予御准。

3.The monarch actually has no real power. The monarch‘s power are limited by law and Parliament. Constitutional monarchy began after the Glorious Revolution in 1688.

君主政体实际已无实权。它的权力受限于法律和议会。君主立宪制是从1688年的光荣革命后开始。

III.Parliament

议会

1.The United Kingdom is a unitary， not a federal， state. Parliament consists of the Sovereign， the House of Lords and the House of Commons.

英国是中央集权国家，而不是联邦制国家。议会由君主，上议院和下议院组成。

2.The main functions of Parliament are： （1） to pass laws； （2） to provide， by voting for taxation， the means of carrying on the work of government； （3） to examine government Policy and administrations， including proposal for expenditure； and （4） to debate the major issues of the day.

议会的主要作用是：（1）通过立法；（2）投票批准税为政府工作提供资金；（3）检查政府政策和行政管理，包括拨款提议；（4）当天的议题辩论。

3.The House of Lords is made up of the Lords Spiritual and the Lords Temporal. The main function of the House of Lords is to bring the wide experience of its members into the process of lawmaking. In other words， the non-elected House is to act as a chamber of revision， complementing but not rivaling the elect House.

贵族院（上议院）由神职贵族和世俗贵族组成。它的主要作用是用议员的丰富经验帮助立法。换而言之，非选举的上议院是修正议院，补充而非反对由选举产生的下议院。

4.The House of Common is elected by universal adult suffrage and consists of 651 Members of Parliament （MPs）。 It is in the House of Commons that the ultimate authority.

下议院（平民院）由成人普选产生，由651名议员组成。下议院拥有最终立法权。

5.Britain is divided 651 constituencies. Each of the constituencies returns one member to the House of Commons. A general Election must be held every five years and is often held at more frequent intervals.

英国被划分为651个选区，每个选区选一名下议院议员。大选必须五年举行一次，但经常不到五年就进行一次选举。

6.Britain has a number of parties， but there are only two major parties. These two parties are the Conservative Party and the Labour Party. Since 1945， either the Conservative Party or the Labour Party has held power. The party which wins sufficient seats at a General Election to command a majority of Government. The leader of the majority party is appointed Prime Minister. The party which wins the second largest number of seats becomes the Official Opposition， with its own leader and “shadow cabinet ”。 The rule of Opposition is to help the formulation of policy. Criticizes the Government and debate with the Government.

英国有很多政党，但有两个主要的政党—保守党和工党。从1945年以来，两党一直轮流执政，在大选中获多数议席因而在下议院拥有多数支持者的政党组建政府，多数党领袖由君主任命为首相。获得第二多数议席的政党则正式成为“反对党”，有自己的领袖和影子内阁。反对党的目的是帮助制定政策，它可以经常给政府提出批评性的建议和修正议案。

III.The Cabinet and Ministry

内阁和内阁部长

1. The Prime Minister presides over the Cabinet， is responsible for the allocation of functions among ministers and informs the Queen at regular meetings of general business of the Government. Cabinet members hold meetings under the chairmanship of the Prime Minister for a few hours each week to decide Government policy on major issues.

首相主持内阁，负责分配大臣们的职能，在定期会见女王时向女王报告政府事务。内阁在 首相的主持下，每周开会几小时，以决定在重大问题上政府的政策。

2. Ministers are responsible collectively to Parliament for all Cabinet decisions； individual Ministers are responsible to Parliament for the work of their department.

内阁的所有决定由大臣集体向议会负责，各大臣又为各自部门的工作向议会负责。

IV.The Privy Council

枢密院

1. The Privy Council was formerly the chief source of executive power in the state and give private advice to the King. So the Privy Council was also called the King‘s Council in history. Today its role is largely formal， advising the sovereign to approve certain government decrees.

枢密院原来是政府行政权力的源泉，给君主提供“私人”建议。它在历史上也称为国王议会。今天它的主要作用是礼节性的，如建议君主批准政府的法令。

2. Its membership is about 400， and includes all Cabinet ministers， the speaker of the House of Common and senior British and Commonwealth statement.

它的主要成员有400人左右，包括内阁阁员，下议院院长及英国，英联邦的高级政治家等。

V.Government Department and the Civil Service

政府各部和公务员部

1. The principal Government department main includes： the Treasury， the House of office， the Foreign and Commonwealth office， the Ministry of Defense…

主要的政府部门包括：财务部，内务部，外交部，国防部等。

2. Members of the Civil Service are called Civil Services. They staff government departments. Civil Servants are recruited mainly by competitive examination. Civil servants do not belong to any political party. Changes of Government do not involve changes in departmental staff， There are about 541800 civil servants in Britain now.

文职人员部的成员被成为公务员。公务员主要是通过竞争考试录用。公务员部门不属于任何政党，政府的变更并不影响部门职员的变更。英国现约有541800名公务员。

VI.Local Government

地方政府部门

1. There are two main tiers of local authority throughout England and Wales： counties and the smaller districts. Now， England and Wales are divided into 53 counties which are sub-divided into 369 districts.

英格兰和威尔士实行两级地方政府制—郡和比郡小的区。现在英格兰和威尔士分为53个郡，郡下分为369个区。

2. Greater London is divided into 32 boroughs.

大伦敦被分为32个行政区。

艾昕儿

Chapter 6

第六章

The Economy 英国经济

I. The Evolution of the British Economy since the War

The evolution of the British economy since WWII falls into three periods：

二战后英国经济发展可分为三个阶段：

（1） Steady development in the 50s and 60s： The British economy in this period is characterized by slow but steady growth， low unemployment and great material prosperity with rising standards of consumption.

（1）战后50-60年代平稳发展时期。其主要特点是经济缓慢而持续增长，失业率低，物质丰富，人民消费水平不断增长。

（2） Economic recession in the 70s： In the 1970s among the developed countries， Britain maintained the lowest growth rate and the highest inflation rate， and the high record of trade deficits.

（2）70年代经济滞胀。在70年代，英国在所有的发达资本主义国家中，始终保持最低经济增长率，最高的通货膨胀率，和最高的贸易赤字纪录。

（3） Economic recovery in the 80s： An outstanding feature of the economic recovery in the 80s was its length， lasting seven years. Another was the improved financial position of the government， with stronger current account of the balance of payments.

（3）80年代经济复苏。一个显著特点是时间长，复苏持续了7年。另一个特点是国际收支大大盈余，政府金融地位最高。

Measures taken by Mrs. Thatcher's government to improve the economy

Mrs. Thatcher's government took numerous measures to improve the efficiency of the economy during the past decade， using both macroeconomic and microeconomic policies.

撒切尔政府运用宏观经济政策和微观经济政策，采取许多措施提高经济效益。

（1） Macroeconomic measures were directed towards bringing down the rate of inflation and achieving price stability.

宏观经济政策直接针对降低通货膨胀率和维持物价稳定。

（2） Microeconomic policies were aimed at working with the grain of market forces by encouraging enterprise， efficiency and flexibility.

微观经济政策旨在通过鼓励实业，效率和灵活性共同努力提高市场竞争力。

Reasons for the British coal mining is called a “sick” industry today.

Reasons for the British coal mining is called a “sick” industry today.

英国煤矿被称为“生病”工业的原因。

Today the coal industry in Britain is on the decline，the number of miners， collieries and the total output have been falling.

如今的英国煤矿业衰退，从而导致矿工、煤矿的数量和总产量都大大下降。

The reasons for the decline are as follows： exhaustion of old mines， costly operations of extraction， poor old equipment， little investment， fall in demand due to imports of cleaner， cheaper and more efficient fuels， etc.

煤工业衰退的原因包括：老煤矿的枯竭，昂贵的提炼费用，破旧的设备，极少的投资，由于进口更干净、更便宜、更高效的燃料导致的需求下降等等。

Britain‘s oil and natural gas

英国的石油和天然气

Natural gas was discovered in 1965 and oil in 1970 under the North Sea. Today Britain is not only self-sufficient in oil but also has a surplus for export. The transport and domestic heating systems mostly depend on oil. So does the food supply， because most agriculture is highly mechanized. Modern farming requires things which are all oil-based.

在1965年及1970年在北海发现天然气和石油。今天英国的石油不仅能自给自足，还有盈余供出口。交通和家庭供热系统主要依靠石油，因为大部分农业的高度机械化，食品供应也靠石油。

Main problems associated with Britain‘s iron and steel industry today.

如今英国钢铁工业的主要问题。

British iron and steel industry is declining for the following reasons：

英国钢铁工业衰退的原因如下：

1. Local supplies of iron ore have become exhausted；

当地贮备枯竭；

2. Old fashioned furnaces for making coke cannot recover valuable by-products；

他们生产焦炭的老式炉不能提取有价值的副产品，

3. Blast furnaces， steelworks， and rolling mills are often separated from each other and thus cannot perform as well as more compact operation；

高炉、钢铁厂和轧钢厂经常分开，导致不如更紧凑的企业出效益；

4. Many steelworks have to be closed down， causing major unemployment in an area.

许多钢铁厂倒闭，导致该地区的大批人失业。

The main textile producing regions of Britain are the East Midlands， Yorkshire， Humberside， and Northern Ireland.

New Industries

New industries include microprocessors and computers， biotechnology and other high-tech industries. There are three areas in Britain which have seen some high-tech industrial growth： （1）。the area between London and South Wales， （2）。the Cambridge area of East Anglia and （3）。the area between Glasgow and Edinburgh in Scotland. The third area is the most spectacular of the three and is now often referred to as the “Silicon Glen”。 By the end of 1985 half of Britain‘s microchip output was estimated to have come from Scotland.

英国主要纺织基地是现在的中东部，约克郡和汉伯塞德郡及北爱尔兰。

The reasons behind the decline of Britain's textile industry are：

英国纺织业的衰退原因如下：

（1） Exports of textiles have not competed well with those of other foreign producers who have managed to produce cheaper goods.

纺织品出口不能很好地与设法生产出更便宜商品的国外产家竞争。

（2） There has been a rise in cheaper imports of textiles to Britain from foreign producers.

英国增加了从外国产家进口更廉价纺织品。

（3） Poor and outdated management decisions have caused problem.

薄弱及过时的管理决策导致许多问题。

（4） Substitutions of human-made fibres have been made for natural fibres.

人造纤维代替品已取代了天然纤维。

（5） An improvement of output per worker has been achieved， due to mechanization.

由于机械化，每个工人的生产量有了提高。

艾昕儿

英国与第二次世界大战

As Adolf Hitler and Nazism showed off their aggressive momentum in Europe， Chamberlain， the Prime Minister， found his policy of appeasement of German aggression was no longer tenable， and was forced to declare war on Germany on September 3，1939.

当阿道夫希特勒及纳粹主义显示他们对欧洲的侵略意图时，首相张伯伦发现他的绥靖政策已站不住脚，只得于1939年9月3日对德宣战。

4. Postwar Britian

战后的英国

（1） One of the most far-reaching consequences of the War was that it hastened the end of Britain‘s empire.

二战最为深远的结果之一是加速了大英帝国的瓦解。

（2） In 1952 Princess Elizabeth was crowned Queen Elizabeth II. Many people through television saw the ceremony.

1952年伊莉莎白公主加冕成为伊莉莎白女王二世。新发明的电视使许多人看到了加冕仪式的过程。

（4） In January 1973， Britain became a full member of the European Economic Community which was still called the Common Market in 1973. Britain witnessed the first oil shock in 1973.

1973年1月，英国终于成为欧洲经济共同体的正式成员国。1973年仍称为共同市场。1973年英国经历了第一次石油禁运。

（5） Mrs Thatcher

撒切尔主义

Thatcherism referred to the policies put forward by Margaret Thatcher， the first woman prime minister in England in 1979. The main contents of her policies included the return to private ownership of state-owned industries， the use of monetarist policies to control inflation， the weakening of trade unions the strengthening of the role of market forces in the economy， and an emphasis on law and order. To some extent her program was successful and she led one of the most remarkable periods in the British economy.

1979年撒切尔夫人成为英国第一任女首相。她提出的政策被为“撒切尔主义”。其内容包括国有工业私有化，采用货币主义政策以控制通货膨胀，削弱工会的影响，加强市场因素在经济中的作用，强调法律和秩序。在一定程度上讲，她的计划是成功的。她领导英国经济度过了一段最繁华的时期之一。

艾昕儿

第五章

The Rise and Fall of the British Empire （1688-1990）

大英帝国的兴衰

I. Whigs and Tories

辉格党人和托利党人

These two party names originated with the Glorious Revolution （1688）。

这两个政党名称皆起源于1688年的光荣革命。

The Whig were those who opposed absolute monarchy and supported the right to religious freedom for Nonconformists. The Whig were to form a coalition with dissident Tories in the mid-19th century and become the Liberal Party.

辉格党人是指那些反对绝对王权，支持新教徒宗教自由权利的人。辉格党人在19世纪中叶与持不同意见的托利党人组盟组成自由党。

The Tories were those who supported hereditary monarchy and were reluctant to remove kings. The Tories were the forerunners of the Conservative Party.

托利党人是指那些支持世袭王权、不愿去除国王的人。托利党是保守党的前身。

I. Agricultural Changes in the Late 18th Century

18世纪末的农业革命

During the late 18th and early 19th centuries， the “open-field” system ended when the Enclosure Act was passed. The movement lasted for centuries. Agricultural enclosure had good as well as bad results：

18世纪末、19世纪初的农业革命期间，随着《圈地法》的颁布，传统的“开放田地”制结束。圈地运动持续了将近一个多世纪。农业圈地运动的利弊共存：

（1） Farms became bigger and bigger units as the great bought up the small；

由于大农场兼并了小农场，农场成为越来越在的生产单位；

（2） More vegetables， more milk and more dairy produce were consumed， and diet became more varied；

人们消费的蔬菜，牛奶及奶制品越来越多，饮食种类愈加丰富；

（3） Enclosure was a disaster for the tenants evicted from their lands by the enclosures. These peasant farmers were forced to look for work in towns. Enclosure led to mass emigration， particularly to the New World；

圈地对佃家而言是场灾难，他们被赶出土地，被迫到城镇找工作。圈地运动导致了大规模的移民，尤其是移民至新大陆。

（4） A new class hostility was introduced into rural relationships.

农村关系中产生了新的阶级对立。

II. The Industrial Revolution （1780-1830）

工业革命（1780-1830）

1.The industrial Revolution refers to the mechanisation of industry and the consequent changes in social and economic organization in Britain in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.

工业革命指的是17世纪末、18世纪初英国工业的机械化，以及因此而导致的社会结构和经济结构的变化。

2.Britain was the first country to industrialize because of the following factors：

英国成为第一个工业化的国家，原因如下：

（1） Favourable geopraphical location. Britain was well placed geographically to participate in European and world trade；

优越的地理位置：英国地理位置优越，适合参与欧洲与世界贸易；

（2） Political stability. Britain had a peaceful society， which， after the 17th century， was increasingly interested in overseas trade and colonies. International trade brought wealth to merchants and city bankers. They and those who had done well out of new farming methods provided capital in large quantities for industralization.

政治局面稳定。17世纪后的英国社会宁静，对海外贸易和殖民地兴趣日增。国际贸易给商人和城市银行家带来财富，他们加上由于新农作法而发家的人们为工业化提供了大笔资金。

（3） Good foundation in economy. The limited monarchy which resulted from the Glorious Revolution of 1688 ensured that the powerful economic interests in the community could exert their influence over Government policy.

1688年光荣革命限制了君主的权力，这使得强大的经济利益集团能对议会政策施加影响。

（4） It was a country in which the main towns were never too far from seaports， or from rivers， which could distribute their products.

英国的主要城镇皆靠近海港或河流，货物运送便利。

（5） Britain had many rivers， which were useful for transport but also for water and steam power. Britain also had useful mineral resources.

英国许多河流不仅用于交通，还提供水力及蒸汽动力。英国还有可用的矿产资源。

（6） British engineers had sound training as craftsmen.

英国工程师为训练有素的手工艺人。

（7） The inventors were respected. They solved practical problems.

发明家受人尊重，他们解决了实际难题。

（8） Probably laissez faire and “Protestant work ethic” helped.

很可能利益于“放手干”及“新教工作道德”。

（9） England， Scotland， and Wales formed a customs union after 1707 and this included Ireland after 1807. So the national market was not hindered by internal customs barriers.

1707年后，英格兰、苏格兰和威尔士形成关税联盟，1807年后爱尔兰加入。因此，全国市场不再受阴于内部的关税障碍。

（10） The enclosures and other improvements in agriculture made their contributions by providing food for the rising population， labour for the factories， and some of the raw materials needed by industry.

圈地运动和其它农业改良为增加的人口提供了粮食，为工厂提供了劳动力，为工业提供了所需的一些原材料。

3.Typical examples of the inventions during the Industrial Revolution

工业革命中一些重大创新

（1） John Kay‘s flying shuttle in 1733；

1733年，约翰凯的飞梭；

（2） James Hargreaves‘ Spinning Jenny in 1766；

1766年詹姆士哈格里夫斯詹妮纺纱机；

（3） Richard Arkwright‘s waterframe in 1769；

1769年理查德阿克赖特的水力纺织机；

（4） Samuel Crompton‘s mule in 1779

1779年塞缪尔克朗普顿的走绽纺纱机；

（5） Edmund Cartwright‘s power loom in 1784；

1784年爱德蒙卡特莱特发明的力织机；

（6） James Watt‘s steam engine in 1765.

1765年詹姆斯瓦特的高效蒸汽机。

4.Consequences of the industrial Revolution

工业革命的结果

（1） Britain was by 1830 the “workshop of the world”；

英国成为了“世界工场”；

（2） Towns grew rapidly and became the source of the nation‘s wealth.

城镇迅速兴起，成为国家财富的源泉。

（3） Mechanization destroyed the livelihood of those who could not invest in it . The working men worked and lived in a appalling conditions.

机械化摧毁了不能投入其中的人们的生活。工人们在可怕的条件下劳动与生活。

（4） The industrial revolution created the industrial working class， the proletariat， and it later led to trade unionism.

工业革命产生了工人阶级，即无产阶级。后来形成了工会制度。

III. The Chartist Movement （1836-1848）

宪章运动（1836-1848）

1. Reasons for parliamentary reforms.

议会改革的原因

（1） Power was monopolized by the aristocrats.

权力由贵族操纵。

（2） Representation of town and country， and North and South was unfair.

城镇和农村，北方和南方的代表权极不平等。

（3） There were also various so-called rotten or pocket boroughs.

还有各种称之为衰败或口袋选区的选区。

2.Three Reform Bills

三个改革法案

Between 1832 and 1884 three Reform Bills were passed.

1832年至1884年间通过了三个改革法案。

a） The Reform Act of 1832 （also called the “Greater Charter of 1832） abolished ”rotten boroughs“， and redistributed parliamentary seats more fairly among the growing tows. It also gave the vote to many householders and tenant‘s， based on the value of their property.

1832年的《改革法案》（也称为1832年的大宪章）废除了“衰败选区”；在新兴城镇中较为公平地重新分配了议席；以财产价值为基础给予许多屋主和佃家。

b） The New Poor Law of 1834 forced the poor people into work houses instead of giving them sufficient money to survive in their own homes.

1834年的新贫困法强迫穷人进工厂，而没有给他们足够的钱在自己的家里生存。

3.A People‘s Charter

人民宪章

There was widespread dissatisfaction with the Reform Act of 1832 and the New Poor Law. In 1836， a group of skilled workers and small shopkeepers formed the London Working Men‘s Association. They drew up a charter of political demands （a People’s Charter） in 1838， with the intention of presenting it to Parliament. It had six points： （1）the vote for all adult males； （2）voting by secret ballot； （3）equal electoral districts； （4）abolition of property qualifications for members of Parliament； （5）payment of members of Parliament； （6）annual Parliaments， with a General Election every June.

1832年的《改革法案》和《新贫困法》引起了普遍不满。1836年，一群技术工人和小店主组成伦敦工厂联盟。他们于1838年起草了有关政治要求的宪章（人民宪章），想把它呈送给议会。宪章有六点内容：（1）所有成年男子都有选举权；（2）进行无记名投票；（3）平等选区；（4）议员选举废除财产资格要求；（5）议员应有报酬；（6）议会每年六月进行大选。

4.Results of the Chartist Movement

宪章运动的结果。

Chartism failed because of its weak and divided leadership， and its lack of coordination with trade-unionism. The working class still immature， without the leadership of a political party armed with correct revolutionary theory. The Chartist movement was， however， the first nationwide working class movement and drew attention to serious problems. The 6 points were achieved very gradually over the period of 1858-1918， although the sixth has never been practical. Lenin said that Chartism was “the first broad， really mass， politically formed， proletarian revolutionary movement.”

由于领导层的软弱和分歧，由于缺少与工会的协调，宪章运动失败了。当时的工人阶级还未成熟，没有正确的革命理论武装的政党领导。但是，宪章运动是第一次全国范围的工人阶级运动，引起了对许多严重问题的关注。在1858至1918年间，六项要求逐渐达到，尽管第六项从未成为现实。列宁说宪章运动是“第一个广泛的、真正群众参与的，有政治组织形式的无产阶级革命运动。”

I. Trade Unions and the Labour Party

工会和工党

1. The Trade Union Act of 1871 legalized the trade unions and gave financial security.

1871年通过的《工会法》使工会合法化并给其财政保障。

2. The Labor Party had its origin in the Independent Labor Party（ILP）， which was formed in January， 1893. In 1900， representatives of trade unions， the ILP， and a number of small socialist societies set up the Labor Representation Committee （LRC）。 The LRC changed its name to the Labor Party for the general election called for in 1906.

工党起源于独立工党，于1893年1月成立。1900年，工会代表，独立工党和许多小型社会主义社团一起成立了工人代表委员会。1906年的大选迫使工人代表委员会及时更名为工党。

II. Colonial Expansion

殖民扩张

1. The growth of dominions

自治领的兴起

English colonial expansion began with the colonization of Newfoundland in 1583. Encouraged by Britain‘s control of the seas， especially by the rising tide of emigration， British colonialists stepped up their expansion to Canada， Australia， and New Zealand， in the late 18th and the early 19th centuries. By 1900， Britain had built up a big empire， “on which the sun never set”。 It consisted of a vast number of protectorates， Crown colonies， spheres of influence， and self-governing dominions. It included 25% of the world’s population and area.

英国殖民扩张开始于1583年纽芬兰的殖民化。在18世纪末、19世纪初，受到海外移民浪潮的鼓舞，英国殖民者很快加他们的扩张到加拿大、澳大利亚、新西兰。到1900年英国已建立了“日不落”的大英帝国，包括受保护国、英国殖民地、势力范围和自治领，占世界人口与面积的25%.

Canada was ceded to Britain by the 1763 Treaty of Paris. French rights were guaranteed by the Quebec Act of 1774. The Canada Act of 1791 divided Canada into Upper Canada where the British had settled， and Lower Canada populated by the French. The British North America Act of 1867 established Canada as a dominion.

1763年签订的《巴黎条约》将加拿大割让给英国。1774年的《魁北克法》保证了法国的权益。之后，1791年《加拿娃哈哈》把加拿大分为上加拿大和下加拿大，前者是英国人的定居地，后者是法国人的居住点。1867年《英国北美法案》确定加拿大为自治领。

English began to transport convicts to Australia in 1788. Free settlement began in 1816， and no convicts were sent to Australia after 1840. The gold rushes （1851-1892） brought more people to Australia， and in 1901 the six self-governing wer united in one dominion-the independent Commonwealth of Australia.

1788年英国人开始把囚犯流放到澳大利亚。1816年开始可以自由定居，1840年后囚犯不再流放到澳大利亚。1851年至1892年的淘金热使更多的人拥到澳洲。1901年，六个自治领统一为一个自治领—澳大利亚独立联邦。

New Zealand became a separate colony of Britain in 1841， achieved self-government in 1857， became a dominion under the British crown in 1907 and was made completely independent in 1931.

1841年新西兰成为独立殖民地，1857年实现自治，1907年成为英皇属下的自治领，1931年完全独立。

1. The Conquest of India

征服印度

The British East India Company established in 1600. By 1819 the British conquest of most India was almost complete. After the muting of Bengal army in 1857， the control of India passed to the British Crown and Queen Victoria became Empress of India in 1877.

1600年英国东印度公司的建立是经济渗透的实例。到1819年英国对印度的征服已基本完成。1857年东印度公司孟加拉军队的当地士兵发动兵变后，1858年印度改由英国君主统治。1877年维多利来女王正式成为印度女皇。

2. The Scramble for Africa

对非洲的掠夺

At the beginning of the 19th century British possessions were confined to forts and slave trading posts on the west coast. Over the 19th century the interior of Africa was gradually discovered and colonized by Europeans. Britain led the way in the race. Apart from the colonies in the South and West， Britain was also involved in the North East in Egypt and the Sudan.

19世纪初英国的占领地局限于西海岸的堡垒和奴隶交易点。整个19世纪欧洲人逐渐发现并殖民了非洲内陆。在这场瓜分竞赛中英国占了较大的优势。除了不断扩张的南部和西部殖民地后，英国又凯觎东北的埃及和苏丹。

3. Aggression against China

侵略中国

In 1840， the Opium War broke out between Britain and China. Since then， Britain gradually invaded many coastal areas and imposed a series of unequal treaties upon China.

1840年英国和中国发动了鸦片战争。从那时起，英国逐渐侵略了中国的许多沿海城市，并签定了许多不平等条约。

VI. Twentieth Century

二十世纪

1. Britain and the First World War

英国和第一次世界大战

The Work War I was fought from 1914 to 1918 primarily between two European Power blocs： “the Central power”。 Germany and Austria-Hungary， and the “Allies”， Britain， France and Russia. During the war， the Britain lost much. Apart from the loss of manpower， there had been considerable disruption of the economy and society. Out of the war settlement came the establishment of the league of Nations.

第一次世界大战是从1914年至1918年，战争主要在两大欧洲集团间进行：“同盟国”，包括德国和奥匈帝国，和“协约国”，包括英国、法国和俄罗斯。一战中英国损失惨重。除了劳动力损失，还有巨大的经济与社会瓦解。

2. Britain Between the Two World Wars

两次世界大战期间的英国

The effects of the New York Stock Market Crash of 1929 soon spread throughout Europe and by 1931 Britain was entering the Great depression.

1929年纽约股票交易所崩溃的影响迅速波及欧洲，到1931年英国进入经济大萧条。

3. Britain and the Second World War

艾昕儿

Chapter 4

第四章

Transition to the Modern Age （1455-1688）

向现代英国的过渡

I. Transition to the Modern Age （1455-1485）

向现代英国的过渡（1455年-1485年）

The Wars of Rose

玫瑰战争

The name Wars of the Roses was refer to the battles between the House of Lancaster， symbolized by the read rose， and that of York， symbolized by the white， from 1455 to 1485. Henry Tudor， descendant of Duke of Lancaster won victory at Bosworth Fireld in 1485 and put ht country under the rule of the Tudors. From these Wars， English feudalism received its death blow. The great medieval nobility was much weakened.

玫瑰战争是指，从1455年到1485年，以红玫瑰为象征的兰开斯特大家族和以白玫瑰为象征的约克家族之间战争的普遍接受的名称。1485年，兰开斯特家族的后代亨利都铎取得了博斯沃恩战役的胜利，建立了都铎王朝。这些战争使英国的封建主义受到致命打击，贵族阶层受到了削弱。

II. The English Reformation

英国的宗教改革

Henry VIII was above all responsible for the religious reform of the church. There were three main causes： a desire for change and reform in the church had been growing for many years and now， encouraged by the success of Martin Luther， many people believed its time had come； the privilege and wealth of the clergy were resented； and Henry needed money.

最重要的是，亨利八世负责进行教会的宗教改革。改革原因有三个主要方面：改革教会的渴望已有多年，现在又受马丁路德成功的鼓舞，许多人认为时机已到；人们痛恨教职人员的威望和财富；亨利需要钱。

The reform began as a struggle for a divorce and ended in freedom from the Papacy. Henry VIII wanted to divorce Catherine of Aragon but the Pope refused. Henry‘s reforms was to get rid of the English Church’s connection with the Pope， and to make an independent Church of England. He made this break with Rome gradually between 1529 and 1534. He dissolved all of England‘s monasteries and nunneries because they were more loyal to the Pope than to their English kings. The laws such as the Act of succession of 1534 and the Act of Supremacy of 1535 made his reform possible. He established the church of England as the national church of the country， and he made himself the supreme head of the church of England.

改革以争取离婚而开始，以脱离教皇而告终。亨利八世欲与阿拉贡的凯瑟琳离婚，但是教皇拒绝了。亨利改革的目的是摆脱英国教会与教皇的联系，成立独立的英格兰教会。1529年至1534年间逐渐地与罗马脱离了关系。他解散了所有英国的修道院和修女院，因为后者对教皇比对英国国王更忠诚。1534年的《继位法》和1535年的《至尊法案》使改革具有了可行性。1535年他获“英格兰教会最高首脑”之称号。

Henry VIII‘s reform stressed the power of the monarch and certainly strengthened Henry’s position； Parliament had never done such a long and important piece of work before， its importance grew as a result. His attack on the Pope‘s power encouraged many critics of abuses of the Catholic Church. England was moving away form Catholicism towards protestaintism.

改革的三大影响：亨利的改革强调了君主权力，自然加强了亨利的地位；议会以往从未做过如此漫长而重要的工作，自然其重要性也有所加强；他对教皇权力的打击鼓舞许多人批评指责天主教会，并希望从天主教转向新教。

III. Elizabeth I （1558-1603）

伊莉莎白一世（1558年-1603年）

Elizabeth's religious reform and her foreign policy

伊莉莎白的宗教改革和外交政策

Elizabeth's religious reform was a compromise of views. She broke Mary's ties with Rome and restored her father's independent Church of England， i.e. keeping to Catholic doctrines and practices but to be free of the Papal control. He religious settlement was unacceptable to both the extreme Protestants known as Puritans and to ardent Catholics.

For nearly 30 years Elizabeth successfully played off against each other the two great Catholic powers， France and Spain， and prevented England from getting involved in any major European conflict. Through her marriage alliances which were never materialized， Elizabeth managed to maintain a friendly relationship with France. So England wad able to face the danger from Spain.

伊莉莎白的宗教改革是各种观点的妥协。她中断玛丽与罗马的关系，恢复父王独立的英格兰教会，也就是说保持天主教教条及习俗，但不受教皇控制。她的宗教和解既不被极端的新教徒（即清教徒）所接受，也不为虔诚的天主教徒所接受。

近30年的时间，伊莉莎白成功地令两大天主教强国法国和西班牙互相斗杀，从而免于英国卷入任何主要的欧洲国的冲突。通过她从未具体化的联姻，伊莉莎白设法与法国维持友好关系，因此英国能面对来自西班牙的危险。

IV. The English Renaissance

英国文艺复兴

Distinctive features of the English Renaissance

英国文艺复兴的特点

1） English culture was revitalized not so much directly by the classics as by contemporary Europeans under the influence of the classics；

2） England as an insular country followed a course of social and political history which was to a great extent independent of the course of history elsewhere in Europe；

3） Owing to the great genius of the 14th century poet Chaucer， the native literature was sufficiently vigorous and experienced in assimilating for foreign influences without being subjected by them；

4） English Renaissance coincided with the Reformation in England.

英国文艺复兴的五个特点：1）英国文化的复兴并不是直接通过古典作品，崦是通过受古典作品影响同时代的欧洲人实现的；2）英格兰作为一个与大陆隔离的国家，其社会历史进程很大程度上独立于欧洲其它国家；3）由于14世纪伟大的天才诗人乔叟的出现，英国本国文学得以蓬勃发展，能够在吸收外国文学影响的同时，并未处于从属地位；4）英国文艺复兴文学首先是艺术的，其次才是哲学的和学术的；5）文艺复兴和英格兰的宗教改革在时间上有所交叉。

VI. The Civil Wars and their consequences

Because of the absolute rule of Charles， the confrontation between Charles I and the parliament developed into the civil war. The war began on August 22，1642 and ended in 1651. Charles I was condemned to death.

The English Civil War is also called the Puritan Revolution. It has been seen as a conflict between the parliament and the King， and a conflict between economic interests of the Crown. The economic interests of the urban middle classed coincided with their religious （ Puritan） ideology while the Crown‘s traditional economic interests correspondingly allied with Anglican religious belief. The English Civil War not only overthrew feudal system in England but also shook the foundation of the feudal rule in Europe. It is generally regarded as the beginning of modern world history.

由于查尔斯的“君权神授”统治权，他与议会的对质发展成了内战。战争开始于1642年8月22日，结束于1651年。最后查尔斯被处死。

英国内战又称为清教徒革命。这是议会和国王间的冲突，也是城市中产阶级的经济利益与皇室传统经济利益之间的冲突。城市中产阶级经济利益刚好与他们的宗教（清教）思想吻合，相应地，皇室传统的经济利益则与圣公会教的宗教信仰相结合在一起。英国内战不仅推翻了英国的封建制度，而且动摇了欧洲封建经济的基础。英国内战通常被看作是现代世界史的开端。

The Restoration

王政复辟

When Oliver Cromwell died in 1658 and was succeeded by his son， Richard， the regime began to collapse. One of Cromwell's generals George Monck， occupied London and arranged for new parliamentary elections. The Parliament thus was elected in 1660 resolved the crisis by asking the late King's son to return from his exile in France as king Charles II. It was called the Restoration.

1658年奥利弗克伦威尔去世，他的儿子理查德继任护国公，政权立即开始瓦解。克伦威尔的一位将军乔治蒙克占领伦敦，安排新的议会选举。1660年选出的议会要求上一任国王的儿子长期流亡地法国回国作国王查尔斯二世，从而解决了危机。这就是所谓的王政复辟。

The Glorious Revolution of 1688

1688年光荣革命

In 1685 Charles II died and was succeeded by his brother James II. James was brought up in exile in Europe， was a Catholic. He hoped to rule without giving up his personal religious vies. But England was no more tolerant of a Catholic king in 1688 than 40 years ago. So the English politicians rejected James II， and appealed to a Protestant king， William of Orange， to invade and take the English throne. William landed in England in 1688. The takeover was relatively smooth， with no bloodshed， nor any execution of the king. This was known as the Glorious Revolution.

1685年查尔斯二世去世，由其弟詹姆斯二世继位。詹姆斯二世从小在欧洲流亡长大，是个天主教徒，他希望不放弃个人宗教信仰统治国家。但是1688的英国已不象40年前那样能容忍天主教徒当国王了。英国政客反对詹姆斯二世，他们呼吁信奉新教的国王，奥兰治亲王威谦入侵英国夺取王位。1688年11月15日威廉在托尔比登陆并占领伦敦。这一占领相对平静，既未流血也未处死国王，所以就称为“光荣革命”。

The Gunpowder Plot of 1605

1605年

The Gunpowder Plot of 1605 was the most famous of the Catholic conspiracies. On Nov. 5，1605， a few fanatical Catholics attempted to blow King James and his ministers up in the House of Parliament where Guy Fawkes had planted barrels of gun-powder in the cellars. The immediate result was the execution of Fawkes and his fellow-conspirators and imposition of severe anti-Catholic laws. The long-term result has been an annual celebration on Nov. 5， when a bonfire is lit to turn a guy and a firework display is arranged.

1605年的火药阴谋案是最著名的天主教阴谋。1605年11月5日，几个狂热的天主教徒企图在议会大厦炸死国王和大臣，盖伊福克斯已在地窖放了炸药桶。结果是福克斯和同伙被立即处死，以及更严厉的反天主教法律的颁发。长斯结果是每年11月5日举行庆祝仪式，点燃火堆焚烧盖伊模拟像并燃放烟火。

艾昕儿

Chapter 3

第三章

The Shaping of the Nation （1066-1381）

英国的形成（公元1066-1381）

I. Norman Rule （1066-1381）

诺曼统治（公元1066-1381）

1. William's Rule （1066-1087）

威廉一世的统治（公元1066-1087）

England's feudalism under the rule of William the Conqueror

在威廉统治下的英国封建制度

①Under William， the feudal system in England was completely established. ②According to this system， the King owned all the land personally. ③William gave his barons large estates in England in return for a promise of military service and a proportion of the land's produce. ④These estates were scattered far and wide over the country， so that those who held them could not easily combine to rebel the king. ⑤The barons， who had become William's tenants-in-chief， parceled out land to the lesser nobles， knights and freemen， also in return for goods and services. ⑥At the bottom of the feudal scale were the villeins or serfs. ⑦One peculiar feature of the feudal system of England was that all landowners must take the oath of allegiance，not only to their immediate lord， but also to the king.

①在威廉统治下，英国的封建制度得到完全确立。②根据此制度，国王拥有全国所有土地。③威廉把英国的大片土地分给贵族，条件是换取对方服役和收租。④这些地产分散于各处，这样土地拥有者就不易联合起来反叛国王。⑤已成为国王土地承租人的贵族又把土地分配给小贵族、骑士和自由民，同样换取货物和服役。⑥在封建等级底层的是农奴。⑦英国封建制独有的特色就是，无论是土地承租人还是二佃户，都必须要宣誓效忠于直接领主，而且要效忠于国王。

2. King Henry II and his reforms

亨利二世国王和他的改革

The ways King Henry II consolidate the monarchy.

亨利二世巩固君主制的途径。

Henry II took some measures to consolidate the monarchy. He forced the Flemish mercenaries to leave England； recalled grants of Royal lands made by his previous king Stephen； demolished many castles built in Stephen‘s time； strengthened and widened the powers of his sheriffs and relied for armed support upon a militia composed of English freemen.

亨利二世采取了一些措施巩固君主制。他迫使弗兰德斯雇佣军离开英国，收回史蒂芬森赠出皇室土地；拆除几十座史蒂芬森时造德城堡，加强并扩大了他的行政长官们的权力，依靠由英国自由民组成的民兵获取军事支持。

The ways Henry II reform the courts and the law.

亨利二世对法院及法律进行改革的方式。

King Henry II greatly strengthened the Court and extended its judicial work. He divided the whole country into six circuits and appointed justices to each. Cases were therefore heard before the intermittent justices who applied the law impartially. During his reign， a common law was gradually established in place of the previous laws of the local barons. He also introduced a new jury system to replace the old ordeal-based trial system. Besides， he shifted the trial of clergymen charged with criminal offenses from the Bishop's court to the King's court.

亨利二世大大加强了王家法院，扩展了其司法工作的职权范围。他将全国分为六个审制区。案件更多地由巡回法官审理，并不偏不倚地使用法律。在他统治时期，逐渐建立起超越地方领主法律的普遍法。另外，他用陪审员制度代替了旧的残酷的审判制度。他坚持被控犯有刑事罪的神职人员应由国王法庭审判，而不由主教法庭审判。

II.Contents and the significance of the Great Charter

《大宪章》的内容及意义

Great Charter was signed by King John in 1215 under the press of the barons. It consists of sixty-three clauses. Its important provisions are as follows： （1） no tax should be made without the approval of the Grand Council； （2） no freemen should be arrested， imprisoned or deprived of their property； （3） the Church should possess all its rights， together with freedom of elections； （4） London and other towns should retain their traditional rights and privileges， and （5） there should be the same weights and measures throughout the country. Although The Great Charter has long been popularly regarded as the foundation of English liberties， it was a statement of the feudal and legal relationships between the Crown and the barons， a guarantee of the freedom of the Church and a limitation of the powers of the king. The spirit of the Great Charter was the limitation of the powers of the king， keeping them within the bounds of the feudal law of the land.

《大宪章》是约翰国王1215年在封建贵族压力下签定的。《大宪章》总共63条，其中最重要的内容是：（1） 未经大议会同意，不得征税；（2） 只有根据国家有关法律才能逮捕、监禁自由人以及剥夺他们的财产；（3）教会应享受其所有权利且有选举自由；（4） 伦敦和其它城镇应保留其古时的权力和特权；（5） 全国要使用统一的重量和长度度量衡。尽管人们普遍认为《大宪章》为英国的自由奠定了基础，但该宪章只是规定国王和贵族之间封建关系和法律关系的文件，保证了教会的自由，限制了国王权利。《大宪章》的精神是限制国王权力，使其在英国封建法律允许的范围内活动。

III.The origins of the English Parliament

英国议会的起源

The Great Council is known to be the prototype of the current British Parliament. In 1265， Simon de Montfort summoned the Great Council， together with two knights from each county and two citizens from each town. It later developed into the House of Lords and the House of Commons. Its main role was to offer advice. There were no elections or parties. And the most important part of Parliament was the House of Lords.

大议会是当今英国议会的原型。1265年，西门德孟福尔召开大议会，各县有两名骑士，各镇有两名市民参加。大议会发展到后来演变成议会，分为上议院和下议院。其作用是咨询而非决定；也没有选举和政党。议会的最重要的部分是上议院。

IV.The Hundred Years' War and its consequences.

百年战争及其结果

The Hundred Years‘ War refers to the war between England and France that lasted intermittently from 1337 to 1453. The causes of the war were partly territorial and partly economic. The territorial causes were related with the possession by the English kings of the large duchy in France， while the French kings coveted this large slice. The economic causes were connected with cloth manufacturing towns in Flanders， which were the importer of English wool， but they were loyal to the French king politically. Besides， England's desire to stop France from giving aid to Scots and a growing sense of nationalism were the other causes.

The English's being driven out of France is regarded as a blessing for both countries. If the English had remained in France， the superior size and wealth of France would have hindered the development of a separate English national identity， while France was hindered so long as a foreign power occupied so much French territory.

百年战争指1337年到1453年英法之间一场断断续续的战争，战争的起因既有领土因素又有经济因素。领土起因尤其是与英国国王拥有法国的阿基坦大片公爵领地有密切关系，随着法国国王势力日增，他们渴望占领这片在他们领土内的土地。经济原因则与弗兰德斯有关。弗兰德斯地区生产棉布的城镇是英国羊毛的主要进口商，但这些城镇在政治上却效忠法国国王。其他原因还有英国试图阻止法国帮助苏格兰人，以及不断觉醒的民族意识。

战争的结果：把英国人赶出法国对两个国家都是幸事：若国车人继续留在法国，那么法国人在领土和财富上所占的优势必然会阻碍分离的英国民族的发展；而法国民族被外国势力占领了众多的领土，发展更是长期受阻。

V. The Black Death

黑死病

The Black Death is the modern name given to the deadly epidemic disease spread by rat fleas across Europe in the 14th century. It swept through England in the summer of 1348. It reduced England's population from four million to two million by the end of the 14th century.

The economic consequences of the Black Death were far-reaching. As a result of the plague， much land was left untended and there was a terrible shortage of labour. The surviving peasants had better bargaining power and were in a position to change their serfdom into paid labour. Some landlords， unable or unwilling to pay higher wages， tried to force peasants back into serfdom. In 1351 the government issued a Statute of Labourers which made it a crime for peasants to ask for more wages or for their employers to pay more than the rates laid down by the Justices of the Peace.

黑死病是指由鼠疫蚤传播的致命的淋巴腺鼠疫，是一种流行疾病，在14世纪传播了到欧洲。1348年夏天横扫全英国。英国的人口在14世纪末从400万锐减至200万。

黑死病对经济造成的后果更为深远。鼠疫导致了大片土地无人照管和劳动力极度匮乏。地主想把耕地变为人力需求较少的牧场。存活的农民处于有利的计价还价地位，从农奴变为雇佣劳动力。于是一些支付不起或不愿意支付较高工资的地主想方设法迫使农民重返农奴地位。1351年政府颁布“劳工法令”，规定农民们涨工资的要求，或者是雇主支付比地方官制订的工资水平要高的工资都是犯罪。

VI. The Peasant Uprising of 1381 and its significance

1381年农民起义及其意义

Armed villagers and townsmen of Kent and Essex， led by Wat Tyler and Jack Straw， moved on London in June， 1381. The king was forced to accept their demands. Most of the rebels dispersed and went home， while Tyler and other leaders stayed on for more rights. Tyler was killed at a meeting with the king.

The uprising was brutally suppressed， but it had far-reaching significance in English history. First， it directed against the rich clergy， lawyers and the landowners. Second， it dealt a telling blow to villeinage， and third， a new class of yeomen farmers emerged， paving the way to the development of capitalism.

1381年6月，在瓦特 泰勒和杰克 斯特劳领导下，凯特郡和埃塞克斯郡的农民和市民武装起来发动起义，并向伦敦进发。国王被迫接受了他们的要求。大多数起义农民解散回家，但泰勒和其他坚决的农民留下来要求得到更多的法律、宗教和政治权利。泰勒在又一次与国王的会见中被杀死。

尽管起义被血腥镇压，但在英国历史上留下了深远的影响。这次起义具有真实的社会性，把矛头直接对准了富有的教职人员、律师和地主。这次起义沉重打击了封建农奴制度，产生了全新的自耕农阶级，为资本主义发展铺设了道路。